Biology

BiologyAstronomy

Oct 20

Cell Theory
- Cells are the basic unit of life.
- All living organisms are composed of one or more cells.
- Cells arise from pre-existing cells.
Biomolecules
- Carbohydrates: energy sources (e.g., glucose).
- Lipids: fats and oils for energy storage and cell membranes.
- Proteins: structure, enzymes, and signaling (made of amino acids).
- Nucleic acids: DNA and RNA, the carriers of genetic information.
Genetics Basics
- DNA structure: double helix composed of nucleotides.
- Genes: units of heredity.
- Chromosomes: organized structures of DNA.
- Basic understanding of how traits are inherited.

Cell Structure and Function
- Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic cells.
- Cell organelles: nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, chloroplasts (in plants), and more.
- The function of the plasma membrane and cellular transport (passive and active).
Cell Division
- Mitosis: cell division in somatic cells.
- Meiosis: production of gametes (sperm and eggs).

DNA Replication, Transcription, and Translation
- DNA replication process before cell division.
- Transcription: DNA to RNA conversion.
- Translation: RNA to protein synthesis.
Genetic Mutations and Variability
- Types of mutations (point mutations, deletions, insertions).
- The impact of mutations on protein function.
- Genetic recombination and crossing over in meiosis.

Principles of Evolution
- Natural selection, adaptation, and survival of the fittest.
- Evolutionary mechanisms (mutation, gene flow, genetic drift, selection).
- Speciation: how new species form.
Ecology Basics
- Levels of ecological organization: individual, population, community, ecosystem, biome, biosphere.
- Energy flow: food chains, food webs, and trophic levels.
- Ecosystem dynamics: producers, consumers, decomposers, and their interactions.

Human Organ Systems
- Nervous system: brain, spinal cord, neurons.
- Circulatory system: heart, blood vessels, blood.
- Respiratory system: lungs, oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange.
- Digestive system: organs involved in breaking down food and absorbing nutrients.
- Musculoskeletal system: muscles, bones, movement, and support.
Homeostasis and Feedback Mechanisms
- Regulation of body functions to maintain internal balance.
- Examples of feedback loops (positive and negative).

Cellular Respiration and Photosynthesis
- Cellular respiration: breakdown of glucose to produce ATP.
- Photosynthesis: conversion of light energy into chemical energy in plants.
- Biochemical pathways (Glycolysis, Krebs cycle, Electron transport chain).
Signal Transduction and Cell Communication
- Hormones and neurotransmitters as signaling molecules.
- Receptor-ligand interactions.
- Second messengers and cellular response mechanisms.

Advanced Genetics
- Mendelian genetics: laws of inheritance, Punnett squares.
- Non-Mendelian genetics: incomplete dominance, co-dominance, polygenic traits.
Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering
- Techniques: CRISPR, recombinant DNA technology, gene therapy.
- Applications: cloning, genetically modified organisms (GMOs), DNA fingerprinting.

Integrated Organ Systems
- How different organ systems interact (e.g., cardiovascular and respiratory systems).
- Role of the endocrine system in regulating body functions.
- Immune response: innate and adaptive immunity.
Pathophysiology
- Understanding diseases at the molecular and cellular levels.
- Genetic disorders and their biological basis.
- Role of pathogens in infections and immune responses.

Neuroscience
- Brain structures and functions.
- Neurotransmission and neuroplasticity.
- Disorders of the nervous system.
Developmental Biology
- Embryonic development stages.
- Cell differentiation and tissue formation.
- Role of genes in development.
Evolutionary Biology
- Molecular evolution and the genetic basis of species changes.
- Phylogenetics: the evolutionary history of organisms.
- Evolutionary theory and modern applications in biology.

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